Wastewater and effluent quality standards for irrigation should ideally be clearly outlined within national regulations and standards. In cases where such domestic regulations and standards are insufficient or absent, it becomes essential to turn to internationally recognised guidelines and standards.
The guidelines aim to protect public health and prevent environmental degradation.
Depending on the country and purpose, the requirement for wastewater reuse can vary. If no national standards are present, the WHO standards can be applied. To illustrate what the standards and regulations can look like, the irrigation standards for Morocco and Jordan can be found in the Materials tab.
In addressing hygienic indicators for agricultural wastewater reuse, WHO categorises them based on reuse conditions, exposed groups, and irrigation methods, as outlined in the following matrix.
Category
Reuse Condition
Exposed Group
Irrigation Method
Helminth’s eggs/L
Faecal coli / 100mL
A
Unrestricted: Crops eaten uncooked, sports fields, public parks
Workers, consumers, public
any
≤ 0.1
≤ 103
B
Restricted: crops eaten cooked, cereals, industrial crops, fodder, pasture, and trees
Workers >15 years old
Spray/sprinkler
≤ 1
≤ 105
Workers >15 years old
Flood/furrow
≤ 1
≤ 103
Workers including children, nearby communities
any
≤ 0.1
≤ 103
C
Localised irrigation of crops in category B if exposure of workers and the public does not occur
None
Trickle, drip, or bubbler
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
WHO guideline for wastewater irrigation (A. Steinel, 2011)
For most crops, the target is to have less than or equal to one helminth egg per litre of irrigation water. However, for crops that are eaten uncooked, the threshold is less than 0.1 egg per litre.
Additionally, maximum allowable soil concentrations for various chemicals are specified and summarised in the table below.
Inorganic Compounds
Soil (mg/kg)
Organic Compounds
Soil (mg/kg)
Ag
3
2,4-D
0.25
As
8
2,4,5-T
3.82
B
1.7
Aldrin
0.48
Ba
302
Chlordane
3
Be
0.2
Dieldrin
0.17
Cd
4
Lindane
12
F
635
DDT
1.54
Hg
7
PAHs
16
Mo
0.6
PCDs
0.89
Ni
107
PCDDs
0.00012
Pb
84
Benzene
0.14
Sb
36
Chlorobenzene
211
Se
6
Toluene
12
Tl
0.3
Phthalate
13 733
V
47
Pyrene
41
Styrene
0.68
Toxaphene
0.0013
Maximum tolerable soil concentrations of selected inorganic and organic compounds suggested by WHO (A. Steinel, 2011)
Please note that the industry mainly generates heavy metals and toxic organic compounds in wastewater, which are of less concern in a refugee camp setting. However, some sources of heavy metals and organic pollutants in wastewater may still exist in refugee camps, from batteries, paints, detergents, and pharmaceuticals.
No specific groundwater or environmental protection guidelines are provided due to local variations, which complicate creating a universal guideline.
However, the WHO guidelines also offer various control measures to mitigate environmental impacts, detailed in the following table.
Problem
Suggested Control Measure
Nitrogen excess
– Removal through treatment – Dilution with fresh water – Limitation of wastewater quantity applied
Organic matter
– Removal through treatment – Resting time between irrigation for soil to biodegrade
Salinity
– Avoid the use of water with TDS 500mg/L – 2,000mg/L, depending on soil type and drainage – Dilution of water – Increase soil washing, improve ground drainage, apply soil amendments (compost or manure)
Chlorides
– < 100mg/L for sprinklers – < 350mg/L for flood irrigation – Irrigate at night
TSS
– Removal through treatment – Plough soil when clogged
Some examples of recommended control measures by WHO (A. Steinel, 2011)
For further information, please click on the Materials tab at the top of the page.
Further Reading:
Proposed national standard for treated domestic wastewater reuse for irrigation (Link)
WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater (Link)
JRC Minimum quality requirements for water reuse in agricultural irrigation and aquifer recharge (Link)
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